Kundakunda

CE to traditional datings in the 2nd–3rd c. CE, texts attributed to him may reflect multiple authorship, containing layers dating from 350–400 (Pañcâstikāya-sangraha) and 550–600 CE (Samaya-sāra) up to 950–1150 CE. The Kundakunda-core texts were anonymous compilations for several centuries, and it is not until Jayasena's (ca. 1150–1200) commentary on the Pañcâstikāya that an author is explicitly mentioned and a Kundakunda-narrative is created. The Kundakunda-attributed works show influences from Samkhya, Mahayana Buddhism, and especially Advaita Vedanta, reflected in the distinction between niścayanaya or ‘ultimate perspective’ and vyavahāranaya or ‘mundane perspective’, or the pure atman and the material world. An important inspiration for Shrimad Rajchandra (1867–1901), who in turn inspired Kanji Swami (1890–1980), Rakesh Jhaveri and the Shrimad Rajchandra Mission, and Dada Bhagwan (1908–1988).

• Honorific Prefix — Acharya • Religion — Jainism • Sect — Digambara • Born — scholarly dating 8th century CE, or multiple authorship with layers dating from 350–400 up to 950–1150 CE; trad. Jain-dating 2nd–3rd century CE

While Jain-tradition regards Kundakunda as an author from the 2nd or 3rd century who wrote numerous works, academic scholarship has questioned these datings and attributions, proposing later dates and also proposing multiple authorship. Balcerowicz discerns seven strata for the Pañcâstikāya-sangraha, starting in 350–400 CE and ending in 950–1150. The Samaya-sāra contains four layers, from 550–600 CE to 950–1150 CE. According to Balcerowicz Likewise, Johnson states that...it is more fruitful to view these works as heterogeneous repositories of accumulated Digambara teaching, including relatively new as well as traditional material, rather than the imperfectly preserved work of an individual heterodox philosopher. Johannes Bronkhorst disagrees with Johnson, stating "I do have the impression of being confronted with the work of someone who wished to incorporate into Jainism a notion that had become very useful and fruitful in other currents, primarily Samkhya, but also elsewhere." According to Dundas, following Dhaky (1991), Kundakunda can be dated to the 8th century CE, as his hagiography, and quotations from his influential and important work begin to appear around 8th-century CE, and his ideas can also be traced to this time-period. Jain scholars date him much earlier, with Natubhai Shah and A.N. Upadhye placing him in the second-century CE, and Jayandra Soni placing him in either the 2nd– or 3rd–century CE. Balcerowicz notes that the Kundakunda-core texts were anonymous compilations for several centuries. It is not until Jayasena's (ca. 1150–1200) commentary on the Pañcâstikāya that an author is explicitly mentioned. According to Balcerowicz, Jayasena had an important role in the creation of the Kundakunda-narrative, narrating a story about Kundakunda "the true essence of the Pure Soul (śuddhâtmatattva)"by means of an encounter in "the distant continent of Eastern Videha" with "the omniscient Tīrthakara Sīmandara-svāmin," whereafeter he returns and recites the Pañcâstikāya-prābhrta to the Mahārāja Śivakumāra. The story seems to be modelled on Hindu motifs, and was popularized in modern times by Kanji Swami (1890–1980) who claimed to have been present at this occasion in a previous life, after his follower Campāben (1918–1993), who said she had been there too in a previous life. Kundakunda is known under various names, including Padmanandin. The name Kundakunda is derived from the modern village of Konakondla in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh to which Padmanandin is related. He is also presumed to be the one being alluded to by names such as Elacarya, Vakragriva, Grdhrapiccha or Mahamati. According to Jayandra Soni these names are likely incorrect, because they have been used for other Jain scholars such as Umaswati in texts and others in inscriptions. Balcerowicz states that the accounts on which these names are based are unreliable, but suggests "that these names perhaps preserve five different authors of various historical layers that were incorporated into the core works ascribed later to one of them, Kundakunda."

• Illustration — The Digambara Shruta tradition Sixteen works are attributed to Kundakunda, but this attribution is questioned, and "only parts of some works are likely to have been written by him," and several texts "evince clear signs of interpolations." The works attributed to Kundakunda, all of them in Prakrit, can be divided in three groups. The first group comprises four original works described as "The Essence" (sara)—namely, the Niyamasāra (The Essence of the Restraint, in 187 verses), the Pañcāstikāyasāra (The Essence of the Five Existents, in 153 verses), the Samayasāra (The Essence of the Self, in 439 verses), and the Pravacanasāra (The Essence of the Teaching, in 275 verses). The second group is a collection of ten bhaktis (devotional prayers), short compositions in praise of the acharya (Acharyabhakti), the scriptures (Srutabhakti), the mendicant conduct (Charitrabhakti), and so forth. They form the standard liturgical texts used by the Digambaras in their daily rituals and bear close resemblance to similar, more ancient texts written by the Śvētāmbaras, suggesting the possibility of adoption of some ideas of devotional prayers from the Śvētāmbara canon. The last group consists of eight short texts called Astapahuda or Prabhrta (Pkt. pahuda, i.e., a gift or a treatise), probably compilations from some older sources, on such topics as the right view (Darsanaprabhrta, in 36 verses), right conduct (Charitraprabhrta, in 44 verses), the scripture (Sutraprabhrta, in 27 verses), and so forth. The Astapahuda are "shown by Schubring to be later than Kundakunda on metrical and stylistic grounds."

According to Long, with Kundakunda "a distinctively Digambara bent towards mysticism emerges [...] a focus in religiois practice upon cultivating direct experience or realization of the ultimate reality [...] the pure nature of the liberated soul, or jiva." While Kundakunda's emphasis on liberating knowledge is a somewhat heterodox view in light of Jainism's orthodox 'karmic realism', which sees karma as real physical particles which become attached to the soul, it has become a mainstream view in Digambara Jainism. In the Digambara tradition, Kundakunda's texts are among the most important and treasured. The reverence for his scholarship is such that some later texts such as Pravachanasara list him third in importance, right after Mahavira and Mahavira's disciple Indrabhuti Gautama.

The Kundakunda-corpus inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with the Mahayana Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta inspired notion of two truths and his emphasis on direct insight into niścayanaya or ‘ultimate perspective’, also called “supreme” (paramārtha) and “pure” (śuddha). Shrimad Rajchandra (1867–1901) was a Jain poet and mystic who was inspired by works of Kundakunda and Digambara mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition, his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neither Śvetāmbara nor Digambara, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred as Raj Bhakta Marg, Kavipanth, or Shrimadiya, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself. His teachings influenced Kanji Swami, Dada Bhagwan, Rakesh Jhaveri (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission), Saubhagbhai, Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded by Kanji Swami (1890–1980). Nominally it belongs to the Śvetāmbara but is inspired by Kundakunda and Shrimad Rajchandra (1867–1901), though "lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda." Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora. They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known as Mumukshu, following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal. Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas." The Akram Vignan Movement established by Dada Bhagwan draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu syncretistic movement.