Pieter de Hooch

He was a contemporary, in the Delft Guild of St. Luke, of Jan Vermeer with whom his work shares themes and style. De Hooch was first recorded in Delft on 5 August 1652, when he and another painter, Hendrick van der Burgh witnessed the signing of a will. He was last documented in 1679, but his date of death is unknown (his son Pieter died in 1684, a date often wrongly given for the father).

De Hooch was born in Rotterdam to Hendrick Hendricksz de Hooch, a bricklayer, and Annetge Pieters, a midwife. He was baptised at the Reformed Church in Rotterdam in 1629. He was the eldest of five children and outlived all of his siblings, evidently raised in a working class home. Though, his father was described as a "master bricklayer", hence a skilled artisan required to be a member of the guild. Little is known of his early life, and most archival evidence suggests he worked in Rotterdam, Delft, and Amsterdam. According to his first biographer Arnold Houbraken, he studied art in Haarlem under the landscape painter Nicolaes Berchem at the same time as Jacob Ochtervelt and was known for his "kamergezichten" or "room-views" with ladies and gentlemen in conversation. But De Hooch's work seems to continue in the spirit of Hendrik Sorgh, an older Rotterdam painter who had a special affinity for organising figures in interiors. Beginning in 1650, he worked as a painter and servant for a linen-merchant and art collector named Justus de la Grange in Rotterdam. His service for the merchant required him to accompany him on his travels to The Hague, Leiden, and Delft, to which he moved in 1652, settling on Oude Delft 161 with de la Grange. Later, he lived next to the former Saint Hieronymus convent, once situated between Oude Delft and Westvest. It is likely that De Hooch handed over most of his works to la Grange during this period in exchange for board and other benefits, as this was a common commercial arrangement for painters at the time, and a later inventory recorded that la Grange possessed eleven of his paintings. De Hooch was married in Delft in 1654 to Jannetje van der Burch, possibly sister of Hendrick van der Burgh, by whom he fathered seven children. While in Delft, De Hooch is also believed to have learned from the painters Carel Fabritius and Nicolaes Maes, who were early members of the Delft School. He became a member of the painters' guild of Saint Luke in 1655 (two years after Vermeer). Though, he must have faced financial difficulties, as he was unable to pay the admission fee of 12 guilders. His daughter Anna was born in Delft on 14 November 1656. Based on the fact that his wife attended a baptism in Amsterdam in 1660, it has been determined that he moved to Amsterdam by then, though the success of the trekschuit meant that a trip to Amsterdam could be made easily in a day. Little is known of De Hooch's living arrangements in Amsterdam, though it has been established that he had contact with Emanuel de Witte through a lawsuit brought against de Witte. The burial records in Amsterdam for two of De Hooch's children, dated June 1663 and March 1665, indicate that he resided on Regulierspad and Engelspad, respectively. These "paths" lay outside the old city walls and were known for housing some of the city's poorest inhabitants. This sharply contrasted De Hooch's own living situation with that of his affluent clients in Amsterdam. In 1668, he was living in the Konijnenstraat near the Lauriergracht, where he stayed for the next two years at least. His third son was baptized in 1672. In 1674, De Hooch's financial situation was meagre enough to escape the tax registers entirely, likely a result of the declining art market in the Dutch Republic, following the onerous Rampjaar, which severely strained the economy and all facets of Dutch cultural activity. In his later years, De Hooch painted more and often larger paintings, measuring over 100 centimetres. The date of his death is unknown. For a significant period, it was believed that De Hooch died in 1684 as a resident in the Amsterdam dolhuis, a lunatic asylum. Despite this, official records from that institution reveal that the Pieter de Hooch who died there was, in fact, the artist's son, who also bore the name Pieter. The registration of his son Pieter Pietersz. de Hooch at the Dolhuis in 1679 is noted as the last record of De Hooch in Amsterdam. In 2017 the Turing Foundation sponsored a new research project for the Delft Museum Het Prinsenhof and the Rijksmuseum to work on a new overview exhibition focussing on the works in their collection, presented in a combined exhibition 2019–2020.

Pieter de Hooch's early artistic endeavors were largely centered on depicting soldiers and peasants in settings like stables and taverns. This subject matter was common among his contemporaries, including Adriaen van Ostade, Gerard ter Borch, and Ludolf de Jongh. However, De Hooch's primary interest was not the subject itself, but rather using these scenes to refine his mastery of light, colour, and perspective. In these merry company compositions, the focal point is not dispersed among numerous figure groups, in contrast to the soldier paintings of other artists. Instead, emphasis is concentrated on a principal group illuminated directly by the sun, which prominently stands out against a dark background, in the style of chiaroscuro. These works frequently showcase colour combinations typical of the artist's later period, such as a vivid vermilion and lemon yellow, often complemented by a warm dark green or blue in the shadows. Occasionally, backgrounds open into brightly lit adjoining rooms, and lighted figures may be framed in such doorways, known as a doorsien or doorkijkje, literally a 'see through' or 'peek through'. These serve as reasonably reliable 'tells' of De Hooch's style. The contrast between light and shadow tends to be accentuated, with sunlit portions of the canvas appearing cooler and paler compared to his later works. Notably, De Hooch's mastery is most evident when portraying figures in repose, exemplified in two masterpieces painted around 1654 - one housed in the Palazzo Corsini and the other in the National Gallery, London - which mark the culmination of his early period.

De Hooch's early artistic development is evidenced by the maturity exhibited in his paintings executed around 1655. By 1654, he had attained a zenith in depicting soldier scenes, a focus that persisted into the initial years of his marriage. After starting his family in the mid-1650s, he switched his focus to domestic scenes. These were possibly of his own family, though his works of well-to-do women breastfeeding and caring for children could also indicate that he had attended his mother on her rounds as a midwife. Evidence also suggests that De Hooch may have been employed as a servant under Justus de la Grange, an experience which likely influenced his empathetic and nuanced portrayal of servants and domestic workers in his paintings. His work showed astute observation of the mundane details of everyday life while also functioning as well-ordered morality tales. From the fact he dated a whole series in 1658, whilst he dated very few others, suggests he himself recognised the importance of these paintings. These paintings often exhibited a sophisticated and delicate treatment of light similar to those of Vermeer, who lived in Delft at the same time as De Hooch. The themes and compositions are also comparable between De Hooch and Vermeer. 19th-century art historians had assumed that Vermeer had been influenced by De Hooch's work, and indeed De Hooch first demonstrated a special interest in combining the figure with interior geometry. He succeeded in blending the South Holland techniques of perspective and interior space construction with powerful naturalism and focus on figures, a style undoubtedly influenced by the prominent genre painters of his time. An x-ray of Woman Weighing Gold and Silver Coins showed that De Hooch originally depicted a seated man at the table, which was later overpainted. This detail points to his canvas possibly being the more original model that Vermeer quoted. It is also possible both works were painted simultaneously, during which De Hooch could have been inspired to remove the figure. Another signature work of Vermeer, The Love Letter, is also said to have been inspired by De Hooch, and paintings of Vermeer have been found to have posthumously been inscribed with the signature of De Hooch, perhaps in an attempt to inflate the value of the then-unknown Vermeer's paintings. In the late 1650s, Pieter de Hooch pioneered a new genre of painting that showcased unprecedented spatial order and naturalism. Tranquil depictions of homes and courtyards, which appear casually observed and informal, are carefully composed with a sophisticated grasp of perspective and a fine attention to aerial accuracy. Many of these subtly revolutionary paintings revisit themes from his early works, such as merry companies with drinking soldiers, accompanied by their hostesses. However, the dimly lit stables and taverns of his earlier period are replaced by sunlit interiors, gardens, and courtyards of the middle class. De Hooch's cityscapes were some of the last Dutch painting specialties to emerge. Along with Fabritius' A View of Delft, Pieter de Hooch's depictions of courtyards, bleaching grounds, and street scenes often feature prominent genre figures and are notable for their early focus on urban environments. These works are among the first to emphasise cityscapes, emerging mainly in De Hooch's time in Delft, where his works feature important buildings such as the Oude Kerk, Nieuwe Kerk, and later the rooftop of the newly built Amsterdam Town Hall. Also featured are areas of residence for De Hooch, including courtyards similar to those found behind old Delft homes around the Binnenwatersloot where his wife lived. These edifices were often arranged fictitiously, bringing many important buildings into one scene. De Hooch also shared themes and compositions with Emanuel de Witte, though de Witte soon devoted himself mainly to painting church interior scenes after moving to Amsterdam in 1651. De Witte seems more preoccupied with the rooms themselves, filling his paintings with objects, whilst De Hooch was more interested in people and their relationships to each other, rarely leaving the background of pictures unexplored. This was frequently exhibited, often to exhibit religious iconography or as an empathetic introspection into the lives of the subjects.

In the 1660s, he began to paint for wealthier patrons in Amsterdam who gained their wealth through increased trade and stock exchanges in a time of unrivalled prosperity, coinciding with De Hooch's premier works, during his Delft-Amsterdam transition. During this period, he was known for upscale merry company scenes and family portraits in opulent interiors with marble floors and high ceilings. During his time in Amsterdam, he continued to make his domestic scenes, but both the interiors and their occupants appear more opulent. With the change in setting, his art evolved to feature cooler colours, more substantial figures, and a technique marked by greater precision. Lacking entrée to the homes of the aristocracy, De Hooch conceived the idea of utilising the newly built City Hall as a background for his social scenes, a marble-covered setting once considered the eighth wonder of the world. He was thus enabled to paint accurate architectural settings, and the interiors, and to some extent, the light and colour schemes in these paintings are extremely successful. The reference of these public buildings is likely accountable for the overrepresentation of wealth in Dutch households. These works are often associated with the Leidse Fijnschilders, notable for their meticulously detailed paintings, which commanded very high prices. Though, the price of De Hooch's works did not garner the same prices as the Fijnschilders' until the early nineteenth century, when interest in his works increased, as English collectors, including George IV, Sir Robert Peel, and the Duke of Wellington acquired works by De Hooch. Before this period, his paintings commanded a smaller price than that of Vermeer's, and only a fraction of that of Dou's or van Mieris'. De Hooch also portrayed courting couples engaged in skittle playing, with the finest example on display at Waddesdon Manor. This piece was created shortly after his move to Amsterdam and exemplifies his shift from simple Delft courtyards to the depiction of early country house gardens. The skittle-playing theme connects to the imagery of the "Garden of Love" and "Game of Love" found in both high art and popular print culture. The woman gazing out at the viewer serves as the central figure in this playful "Sport of Love."

Many scholars assert that Pieter de Hooch's work from around 1670 onwards became more stylised and diminished in quality, with some describing him as having "quickly lost his inspiration and charm." However, these assessments are frequently critiqued for applying the aesthetic standards of his earlier Delft paintings rather than considering the evolving artistic norms of post-1670 Dutch art, and the disastrous Rampjaar of 1672 which similarly claimed other contemporary careers. This included renowned masters of the period, such as Jan Steen, who applied for a licence to run a tavern in the wake of economic downturn. It is possible that De Hooch's work was influenced by personal distress, following the death of his wife in 1667 at the age of 38, which left him to care for a young family. During his Amsterdam period, De Hooch encountered less success when revisiting motifs from his Delft era, such as depictions involving a young mother with her child and a serving maid, or when he revisited the soldier scenes reminiscent of his earlier days. Though facing minor success with reinterpretations of his Delft period, these instances of self-repetition are devoid of fresh impressions. The paintings are perceived as having an exaggeratedly dark overall tone, and certain prominent colours, notably a sullen vermillion and a cold blue prevalent in the shadows, characterised as harsh. Remarkably, nearly 50% of De Hooch's works date to the last 15 years of his activity, likely to compensate for lower compensation in the wake of the Rampjaar. Additionally, these works are described as appearing lifeless and cumbersome in outline, with a perceived falseness in their structural composition. An anonymous writer in The Connoisseur quoted remarks on late De Hooch, writing, "[He] sacrifices his individuality to the taste of the time." Upon the acquisition of A Musical Party in a Courtyard by the National Gallery, London in 1916, a debate was provoked in the House of Commons, and the Gallery's Board of Trustees was censured. Writers for The Connoisseur and The Burlington Magazine expressed strong criticism of the artwork, describing the purchase as "an act of folly on the part of the Trustees" and declaring, "Not to mince matters, it is a poor picture, a work of the painter's late and bad period," respectively.