Emmanuel Levinas

In the 1950s, Levinas emerged from the circle of intellectuals surrounding the philosopher Jean Wahl as a leading French thinker. His work is based on the ethics of the Other or, in Levinas's terms, on "ethics as first philosophy". For Levinas, the Other is not knowable and cannot be made into an object of the self, as is done by traditional metaphysics (which Levinas called "ontology"). Levinas prefers to think of philosophy as the "wisdom of love" rather than the "love of wisdom" (the usual translation of the Greek "φιλοσοφία"). In his view, responsibility towards the Other precedes any "objective searching after truth". Levinas derives the primacy of his ethics from the experience of the encounter with the Other. For Levinas, the irreducible relation, the epiphany, of the face-to-face, the encounter with another, is a privileged phenomenon in which the other person's proximity and distance are both strongly felt. "The Other precisely reveals himself in his alterity not in a shock negating the I, but as the primordial phenomenon of gentleness." At the same time, the revelation of the face makes a demand, and this demand is before one can express or know one's freedom to affirm or deny. One instantly recognizes the transcendence and heteronomy of the Other. Even murder fails as an attempt to take hold of this otherness. While critical of traditional theology, Levinas does require that a "trace" of the Divine be acknowledged within an ethics of Otherness. This is especially evident in his thematization of debt and guilt. "A face is a trace of itself, given over to my responsibility, but to which I am wanting and faulty. It is as though I were responsible for his mortality, and guilty for surviving." The moral "authority" of the face of the Other is felt in my "infinite responsibility" for the Other. The face of the Other comes towards me with its infinite moral demands while emerging out of the trace. Apart from this morally imposing emergence, the Other's face might well be adequately addressed as "Thou" (along the lines proposed by Martin Buber) in whose welcoming countenance I might find great comfort, love and communion of souls—but not a moral demand bearing down upon me from a height. "Through a trace the irreversible past takes on the profile of a 'He.' The beyond from which a face comes is in the third person." It is because the Other also emerges from the illeity of a He (il in French) that I instead fall into infinite debt vis-à-vis the Other in a situation of utterly asymmetrical obligations: I owe the Other everything, the Other owes me nothing. The trace of the Other is the heavy shadow of God, the God who commands, "Thou shalt not kill!" Levinas takes great pains to avoid straightforward theological language. The very metaphysics of signification subtending theological language is suspected and suspended by evocations of how traces work differently than signs. Nevertheless, the divinity of the trace is also undeniable: "the trace is not just one more word: it is the proximity of God in the countenance of my fellowman." In a sense, it is divine commandment without divine authority. Following Totality and Infinity, Levinas later argued that responsibility for the other is rooted within the subjective constitution. The first line of the preface of this book is "everyone will readily agree that it is of the highest importance to know whether we are not duped by morality." This idea appears in his thoughts on recurrence (chapter 4 in Otherwise than Being), in which Levinas maintains that subjectivity is formed in and through subjection to the other. Subjectivity, Levinas argued, is primordially ethical, not theoretical: that is to say, responsibility for the other is not a derivative feature of subjectivity, but instead, founds subjective being-in-the-world by giving it a meaningful direction and orientation. Levinas's thesis "ethics as first philosophy", then, means that the traditional philosophical pursuit of knowledge is secondary to a basic ethical duty to the other. To meet the Other is to have the idea of Infinity. The elderly Levinas was a distinguished French public intellectual, whose books reportedly sold well. He had a major influence on the younger, but more well-known Jacques Derrida, whose seminal Writing and Difference contains an essay, "Violence and Metaphysics", that was instrumental in expanding interest in Levinas in France and abroad. Derrida also delivered a eulogy at Levinas's funeral, later published as Adieu à Emmanuel Levinas, an appreciation and exploration of Levinas's moral philosophy. In a memorial essay for Levinas, Jean-Luc Marion claimed that "If one defines a great philosopher as someone without whom philosophy would not have been what it is, then in France there are two great philosophers of the 20th century: Bergson and Lévinas." His works have been a source of controversy since the 1950s, when Simone de Beauvoir criticized his account of the subject as being necessarily masculine, as defined against a feminine other. While other feminist philosophers like Tina Chanter and the artist-thinker Bracha L. Ettinger have defended him against this charge, increasing interest in his work in the 2000s brought a reevaluation of the possible misogyny of his account of the feminine, as well as a critical engagement with his French nationalism in the context of colonialism. Among the most prominent of these are critiques by Simon Critchley and Stella Sandford. However, there have also been responses which argue that these critiques of Levinas are misplaced.

A full bibliography of all Levinas's publications up until 1981 is found in Roger Burggraeve Emmanuel Levinas (1982). A list of works, translated into English but not appearing in any collections, may be found in Critchley, S. and Bernasconi, R. (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Levinas (Cambridge UP, 2002), pp. 269–270. Books 1929. Sur les « Ideen » de M. E. Husserl 1930. La théorie de l'intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology) 1931. Der Begriff des Irrationalen als philosophisches Problem (with Heinz Erich Eisenhuth) 1931. Fribourg, Husserl et la phénoménologie 1931. Les recherches sur la philosophie des mathématiques en Allemagne, aperçu général (with W. Dubislav) 1931. Méditations cartésiennes. Introduction à la phénoménologie (with Edmund Husserl and Gabrielle Peiffer) 1932. Martin Heidegger et l'ontologie 1934. La présence totale (with Louis Lavelle) 1934. Phénoménologie 1934. Quelques réflexions sur la philosophie de l'hitlérisme 1935. De l'évasion 1935. La notion du temps (with N. Khersonsky) 1935. L'actualité de Maimonide 1935. L'inspiration religieuse de l'Alliance 1936. Allure du transcendental (with Georges Bénézé) 1936. Esquisses d'une énergétique mentale (with J. Duflo) 1936. Fraterniser sans se convertir 1936. Les aspects de l'image visuelle (with R. Duret) 1936. L'esthétique française contemporaine (with Valentin Feldman) 1936. L'individu dans le déséquilibre moderne (with R. Munsch) 1936. Valeur (with Georges Bénézé) 1947. De l'existence à l'existant (Existence and Existents) 1948. Le Temps et l'Autre (Time and the Other) 1949. En Découvrant l'Existence avec Husserl et Heidegger (Discovering Existence with Husserl and Heidegger) 1961. Totalité et Infini: essai sur l'extériorité (Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority) 1962. De l'Évasion (On Escape) 1963 & 1976. Difficult Freedom: Essays on Judaism 1968. Quatre lectures talmudiques 1972. Humanisme de l'autre homme (Humanism of the Other) 1974. Autrement qu'être ou au-delà de l'essence (Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence) 1976. Sur Maurice Blanchot 1976. Noms propres (Proper Names) - includes the essay "Sans nom" ("Nameless") 1977. Du Sacré au saint – cinq nouvelles lectures talmudiques 1980. Le Temps et l'Autre 1982. L'Au-delà du verset: lectures et discours talmudiques (Beyond the Verse: Talmudic Readings and Lectures) 1982. Of God Who Comes to Mind 1982. Ethique et infini (Ethics and Infinity: Dialogues of Emmanuel Levinas and Philippe Nemo) 1984. Transcendence et intelligibilité (Transcendence and Intelligibility) 1988. A l'Heure des nations (In the Time of the Nations) 1991. Entre Nous 1995. Altérité et transcendence (Alterity and Transcendence) 1998. De l'obliteration. Entretien avec Françoise Armengaud à propos de l'œuvre de Sosno (»On Obliteration: Discussing Sacha Sosno, trans. Richard A. Cohen, in: Art and Text (winter 1989), 30-41.) 2006. Œuvres: Tome 1, Carnets de captivité: suivi de Écrits sur la captivité; et, Notes philosophiques diverses, Posthumously published by Grasset & Fasquelle Articles in English "A Language Familiar to Us". Telos 44 (Summer 1980). New York: Telos Press.

For three decades, Levinas gave short talks on Rashi, a medieval French rabbi, every Shabbat morning at the Jewish high school in Paris where he was the principal. This tradition strongly influenced many generations of students. Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne, renowned Belgian filmmakers, have referred to Levinas as an important underpinning for their filmmaking ethics. In his book Levinas and the Cinema of Redemption: Time, Ethics, and the Feminine, author Sam B. Girgus argues that Levinas has dramatically affected films involving redemption. Magician Derren Brown's A Book of Secrets references Levinas.