Fazlur Rahman Malik

His reformist ideas led to protests by over a thousand clerics, faqihs, muftis, and teachers in Pakistan, ultimately resulting in him leaving Pakistan. After teaching in the UK and in Canada, where he formed a close friendship with philosopher Ismail al-Faruqi, Fazlur Rahman was appointed head of Pakistan’s Central Institute of Islamic Research in 1962. While widely respected among Islamic reformers, his ideas drew strong criticism from conservative scholars who viewed his approach as excessively liberal. Political opponents of his ally, General Ayub Khan, capitalized on this dissent, ultimately leading to Fazlur Rahman’s departure from Pakistan in 1968. He relocated to the United States, where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and later at the University of Chicago.

Fazlur Rahman Malik studied at University of the Punjab and University of Oxford. The recorded working language is English, Arabic and Urdu. The field of work recorded is Islamic philosophy and sharia. Muhammad Iqbal and Shah Waliullah Dehlawi are recorded as an influence. Employment is recorded with University of Chicago, Durham University and McGill University.

• Name — Fazlur Rahman Malik • Born — 21 September 1919 • Birthplace — Hazara District, North West Frontier Province, British India • Died — 26 July 1988 • Place of death — Chicago, Illinois, United States • Alma Mater — Punjab University (MA) Oxford University (PhD) • Notable Works — Avicenna's Psychology, Islamic Methodology in History, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition • Era — Contemporary Islamic philosophy, 20th-century philosophy • Main Interests — Islamic Modernism, ijtihad • Influenced — Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, Nurcholish Madjid, Abdullah Saeed, Amina Wadud, Mohamed Talbi, Ebrahim Moosa • Doctoral Students — Faisal Devji

Fazlur Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a prominent scholar who had studied at Deoband and held the title of alim through his expertise in Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quranic commentaries, logic, philosophy, and other subjects. Under his father’s influence, Fazlur Rahman was introduced to traditional Islamic sciences and completed the memorization of the Quran at the age of ten. He pursued formal studies in Arabic at Punjab University, and later completed his doctoral studies at Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina.

After completing his studies, Fazlur Rahman began his teaching career, initially at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy. He later joined McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961. During his time at McGill, he formed a close association with the Palestinian-American philosopher Ismail al-Faruqi, introduced through Wilfred Cantwell Smith, the founder of McGill’s Institute of Islamic Studies. Under Smith’s mentorship, al-Faruqi delved deeply into Christian and Jewish theological studies, with Fazlur Rahman observing that Smith's guidance significantly shaped al-Faruqi’s comparative approach to religious studies and interfaith dialogue.

In 1961, Fazlur Rahman returned to Pakistan at the request of President Ayub Khan to lead the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, which had been established by the Pakistani government to integrate Islamic principles into the nation’s public affairs. He also supported a two-year appointment for al-Faruqi at the Institute, where al-Faruqi served as a visiting professor. Reflecting on this period, Fazlur Rahman noted that the experience broadened al-Faruqi’s understanding of cultural diversity within Islam, ultimately shaping his approach to comparative religion and meta-religion. Despite his efforts, the political climate in Pakistan presented significant obstacles to Fazlur Rahman’s vision. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations, and as Ayub Khan’s political influence waned, Fazlur Rehman ultimately resigned from the position in September 1968 and relocated to the United States.

In the United States, Fazlur Rahman resumed his teaching career, first as a visiting professor at UCLA for a year. In 1969, he joined the University of Chicago, where he became the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago, he played an instrumental role in building a strong Near Eastern Studies program, which continues to be highly regarded. Fazlur Rahman also advocated for reform within Islamic governance and served as an advisor to the State Department. He died in Chicago, Illinois on July 26, 1988, at the University of Chicago Medical Center due to complications from coronary bypass surgery. At the time of his death, he was a resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois and is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.

Fazlur Rahman’s philosophy emphasized a return to the intellectual dynamism of early Islam, advocating a dynamic approach to religious interpretation. He believed in integrating philosophy, ethics, and rational thought to address contemporary issues facing the Muslim world. Fazlur Rahman criticized traditional Muslim theologies for overlooking the Quran’s moral principles, stressing that "moral values" endure beyond history and require constant reinterpretation. His work Islam and Modernity (1982) outline these ideas seeking to reconcile Islamic principles with modern challenges.

Fazlur Rahman argued that Islamic tradition often prioritized judicial codes over developing a Quran-based ethical framework. Viewing historical Islamic governance models, such as the caliphate, as past solutions for societal justice, he called for a reformed understanding of justice rooted in the Quranic concept of shura (consultation). He proposed expanding shura to involve all levels of society, advocating collaboration between religious and secular scholars to address social justice issues.

Addressing riba (interest), Fazlur Rahman diverged from the strict prohibition stance of many Islamic revivalist movements. He contended that the Quran’s condemnation of riba referred specifically to exploitative, compounding interest in pre-Islamic Arabia, not moderate loan interest. Fazlur Rahman cited the Muwatta of Imam Malik to support his view, arguing for a nuanced interpretation that bans predatory lending while allowing interest in modern banking. This perspective directly opposed figures like Abul A'la Maududi, who advocated a total ban on interest. He wrote that “the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase … that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.”

Fazlur Rahman was critical of both revivalist and modernist Islamic movements. He argued that 18th- and 19th-century revivalists stifled intellectual growth, while modernists selectively applied Islamic principles without grounding them in a robust methodology. Instead, he championed a "neo-modernism" rooted in a disciplined Islamic framework, advocating for a revival of rational inquiry within Islamic scholarship. His "double movement theory" reflects this approach by encouraging a balanced interpretation of Islamic teachings through context and present-day application, which has been highlighted as essential to fostering religious moderation.

Fazlur Rahman contributed significantly to the development of a contextual approach to examining the Qur’an, arguing that readers must consider both the historical context in which the text was revealed and contemporary social changes. This approach, which he described as a “twofold movement,” involves understanding the Qur’an’s teachings as specific to its time but also adaptable to modern society’s evolving needs. Some Islamic feminist scholars, such as Amina Wadud and Sa’diyyah Shaikh, have cited Fazlur Rahman’s contextual methodology as an inspiration for their own interpretations of the Qur’an, particularly in advocating for gender equality within Islamic teachings. Scholars such as Tamara Sonn and Na’eem Jeenah have noted that his ideas align with an “Islamic Feminist Hermeneutic” approach, demonstrating the broader relevance of his methodology in modern Islamic discourse.